Reflect. Pray. Reach.

The scars of September 11, 2001 will forever be with this generation.

As we honor the tenth anniversary, we seek to answer several questions including:

What did we learn? What will we learn?

Will we, as believers, purposefully seek out and pray for those who have harmed us?

Click on the link below to listen to the sermon:

Sunday, September 11; Reflect. Pray. Reach.

Outline

Reflect. Pray. Reach. Remembering September 11. Romans 3:9-26; Jonah

What should we Remember?

1. We Are All in Desperate Need (3:9-18)

a. Paul illustrates how desperate our need is.

2. God is Holy (3:19, 20)

a. God is merciful, but He is also just.

b. Was God punishing or judging us on September 11 (Luke 13:1-5)

c. God’s desire is for all to come to repentance (2 Peter 3:9-10)

3. God is merciful (3:21-26)

a. God’s mercy is shown through His Son (Hebrews 10:17)

What should we be asking ourselves? 

1. Are we willing to reach out to those who have harmed us?

a. Jonah does not want to reach out to the evil Ninevites (Jonah 1:1-3)

2. Are we willing to share Jesus with those who have hurt us?

a. God’s Judgment falls on Jonah for his disobedience (1:4-17)

b. Jonah points us back to the Gospel (Matthew 12:38-41; Acts 1:6-8)

3. Will we have God’s heart for the nations? 

a. Jonah wanted God’s Judgment on Nineveh (4:1-10).

b. But God’s heart comes out for the people of Nineveh (4:10-11)

 

 

 

The Day of Atonement

Introduction

The term “Day of Atonement” does not appear in the inauguration of the institution in Leviticus 16. [1] Rather, the term does not appear until Leviticus 23:27, 28.[2] “On exactly the tenth day of this seventh month is the day of atonement; it shall be a holy convocation for you, and you shall humble your souls and present an offering by fire to the Lord. You shall not do any work on this same day, for it is a day of atonement, to make atonement on your behalf before the Lord your God.[3]” Transliterated yom hakkippurim in verse 27, and yom kippurim in verse 28, the day has become known as Yom Kippur. In order to understand the significance of the Day of Atonement, the ritual, meaning, and history need to be addressed.

The Ritual

According to the Scriptures, the Day of Atonement took place, “On exactly the tenth day of this seventh month is the day of atonement; it shall be a holy convocation for you, and you shall humble your souls and present an offering by fire to the Lord” (Leviticus 23:27). The Jewish historian Josephus in The Antiquities of the Jews highlights this day as so: “On the tenth day of the same lunar month, they fast till the evening; and this day they sacrifice a bull, and two rams, and seven lambs, and a kid of the goats, for sin. And, besides these, they bring two kids of the goats; the one of which is sent out alive out of the limits of the camp into the wilderness for the scapegoat, and to be an expiation for the sins of the whole multitude.”[4] Aaron, the High Priest was to be properly bathed and clothed as indicated in verse 4. He was not to be in his High Priest garments, but in white linen garments to show humility.[5] The bull for the sin offering, was for Aaron and his house. After slaughtering the bull, Aaron would enter into the Holy of Holies and sprinkle the blood of the bull on the Mercy Seat seven times. This indicated total atonement.[6] Before that however, Aaron had to make a cloud of incense to take behind the veil with him, in order to slightly diminish the glory of the Lord and thus spare his life.[7]

The two goats in verses 8-10 signify one offering for the children of Israel. This essentially was the heart of the whole ceremony.[8] The two goats would have lots cast for them, thus choosing which goat would be sacrificed and which would be set free.[9] Casting lots, similar to rolling dice, allowed the Lord to choose for Himself which goat the sacrifice would be.[10] So, after offering the bull as a sin offering for himself and his house, Aaron would slay one goat. Its blood would be taken behind the veil as the bull’s and sprinkled in the same manner. This time, the blood was for the sins of the children of Israel.[11]

Aaron was then required to cleanse and purify the Altar from the uncleanness of the Israelites in verses 18, 19. The purification process actually moved from the inside out and he would do it by himself, with no one to watch or help. First, Aaron would sprinkle the blood on the altar seven times, then he would purify the Mercy Seat (the most holy object), then he would purify the Tent of Meeting and the Incense Altar, and then he would move out into the court and purify the most holy object there: the altar of burnt offering.[12]

For the second live goat, Aaron would lay his hands on it and confess the sins and transgressions of Israel (vv. 21, 22).[13] Note the interesting fact that both hands were to be placed on the goat as opposed to one hand (cf. 1:4; 3:2, 8, 13; 4:4, 24 29, 33) potentially signifying a higher intensity due to transfer of intentional sins.[14] Then a man, ready for the occasion would take the goat into the wilderness signifying the goat carrying away those sins (vv. 21, 22). In fact, Feinberg goes on to state, “In order to leave no doubt that sin had been taken away, there must be a removal of it which all Israel could witness.”[15]

Once the High Priest finishes the work, he was to take off the linen garments, bathe and adorn the priestly garments (v. 23, 24). After he was dressed, he would go out and make a burnt offering for himself and the people (v.24, 25). Then, the one who took the goat away from camp, before he could come back in, had to bathe himself and wash his clothes (v. 26-28). This was to be a permanent statute for all generations and would affect every Israelite and alien who had taken up residence with the people of Israel (v. 29-31). Everyone was to humble themselves before the Lord which is commonly believed to mean that they were to fast. As Leviticus 16 summarizes the events of the day, it is important to note the five objects of atonement listed in their order of holiness: the Most Holy Place, the Tent of Meeting, the altar, the priests, and the people (v. 33). Throughout these concluding verses, the emphasis is placed on the permanence of the statute (vv. 29, 31, 34).

The Meaning

The overall meaning of the Day of Atonement should not be overlooked. This system of annual atoning was imperfect. Even though there is no indication whether or not there were sins that could not be covered by the Day of Atonement, it was still a temporal atoning. However, the Day of Atonement points to the work of Christ on the cross. His atoning sacrifice was permanent, perfect, and propitiating. He was sent at just the right time according to Galatians 4:4, 5:  “But when the fullness of the time came, God sent forth His Son, born of a woman, born under the Law, so that He might redeem those who were under the Law, that we might receive the adoption as sons.” Hebrews 9:26 says, “Otherwise, He would have needed to suffer often since the foundation of the world; but now once at the consummation of the ages He has been manifested to put away sin by the sacrifice of Himself.” His sacrifice did what the Day of Atonement could not.[16]

In respect to the two goats, and the atoning of the sins for the people of Israel, the death of Christ, in the New Testament age, has made a provision for all.[17] The death of the first goat speaks of the vicarious sacrifice of Christ, and the second goat who lived shows how Christ has put away sins of His children away from God’s presence.[18] C.H. Mackinstosh says it this way:

Now, the death of Christ has made provision for all this. It has perfectly glorified God in the very place where all these things have been done; it has perfectly vindicated the majesty, the truth, the holiness, the character of God; it has divinely met all the claims of His throne; it has atoned for sin; it has furnished a divine remedy for all the mischief which sin introduced into the universe; it affords a ground on which the blessed God can act in grace, mercy, and forbearance toward all; it furnishes a warrant for the eternal expulsion and perdition of the prince of this world; it forms the imperishable foundation of God’s moral government. In virtue of the cross, God can act according to His own sovereignty; He can display the matchless glories of His character and the adorable attributes of His nature. He might, in the exercise of inflexible justice, have consigned the human family to the lake of fire, together with the devil and his angels; but in that case, where would be His love, His grace, His mercy, His kindness, His long-suffering, His compassion, His patience, His perfect goodness?[19]

Further meaning as to both hands being placed on the live goat could constitute an intensity of transferring sins, but also because Aaron is the mediator for the entire nation.[20] This further reveals Christ’s present ministry as Mediator for believers (cf. 1 John 2:1, 2).

Jesus Christ was the perfect atoning sacrifice for all sins, and offered Himself up for everyone (Hebrews 9:14). John the Baptist exclaimed in John 1:29, “Behold, the Lamb of God, that takes away the sins of the world!” (cf. Hebrews 9:28). He shed heavenly glory for the cross, proved Himself sinless, and His death effected the perfect atonement. He was resurrected in order to assure all believers of their justification. He is now being glorified sitting at the right hand of the Father, and will one day return for His people. The comparisons between Aaron, the Day of Atonement, and Christ point to the reality of Christ’s perfection in atonement. For all believers today, He is the perfect High Priest, advocating on their behalf (cf. Hebrews 4:15; 5:5).[21]

The preparations of the tabernacle, the priests, the people and the camp were to get rid of all uncleanness and sin which may have polluted these areas. Therefore, there was necessity to have an annual Day of Atonement to do just that. The Day of Atonement not only purified all that was necessary, but it also cleansed the unknown, unwitting, and unconfessed defiant sins. This cleansing was needed so God could still commune with His people. In fact, Exodus 33:3 says, “Go up to a land flowing with milk and honey; for I will not go up in your midst, because you are an obstinate people, and I might destroy you on the way.” The Day of Atonement was thus significant, because it made possible the ability for the Israelites to live in the presence of God’s glory and survive; otherwise, the alternatives were He would either leave them or He would kill them.[22]

The History

Temples in the ancient world were not necessarily public houses of worship.[23] In fact, sacred areas were heavily restricted in access because they were considered holy ground.[24] This was to protect the people from taking their own lives in their hands, and to protect the areas from being desecrated (they were the dwellings of deity).[25] This was true of the Day of Atonement which fell on the tenth day of the seventh month. The first day of the seventh month signified the beginning of a new Jewish calendar year by the blowing of trumpets. However, even though the Day of Atonement was early in the New Year, only by the shedding of blood could the Israelites receive forgiveness, and thus a new beginning. Hebrews 9:22 echoes that sentiment when it says, “without the shedding of blood there can be no forgiveness.”[26]

The Day of Atonement was set apart so the people of Israel could have their sins atoned for and that God would be able to dwell within their presence.[27] Historically, the Day of Atonement was initiated because of the sin and death of Aaron’s two sons in Chapter 10.[28] “Now Nadab and Abihu, the sons of Aaron, took their respective firepans, and after putting fire in them, placed incense on it and offered strange fire before the Lord, which He had not commanded them. And fire came out from the presence of the Lord and consumed them, and they died before the Lord” (verses 1, 2). The Day of Atonement is first mentioned in Exodus 30:9-10, and the interesting mentioning of the offering of strange incense precedes the Day of Atonement just as the actual Day is followed by the deaths of Nadab and Abihu.[29]

This was a day of solemnity, not rejoicing. The people were required to fast, not feast. The priest would undergo meticulous washings of himself and make sacrifices for the people. The High Priest alone would enter the Most Holy Place, for no one else could do it lest they die. Tradition says that the priests, acknowledging the seriousness of approaching God’s holiness, would tie a rope around his ankle just in case the High Priest was stricken dead inside the tabernacle; at least this way they would have a way to get him out.[30]

Today, Day of Atonement is commonly called Yom Kippur and Day of Judgment. On the day before, Jews participate in Kapparah which is the custom of swinging a chicken above the head three times while reciting special prayers. The belief is that the sins and punishment thereof will be transferred to the bird (recently, giving money has been substituted for the bird, which is given to charity). The term Day of Judgment is because Jews believe that a man’s next year is determined during this Day. Most Jews dress in simple white garments (kittels) signifying holiness and purity, and they believe they should repent, forgive others and make themselves better overall. The leader of the synagogue will sing a prayer, Kol Nidrei, and the participants will pray out loud for forgiveness of sins. In the afternoon, the Bible story Jonah is read and in the evening, the Neilah prayer is said at sunset. To end the day, there is a long blast from the shofar, and the people will eat their first meal after the fast.[31]

Conclusion

The Day of Atonement is a fascinating study in its ritual, meaning and history. This Day clearly points to the cross work of Christ and His atoning sacrifice. This study really gives an opportunity to the believer to help fully understand the progressive revelation through Scripture. Through the deaths of Nadab and Abihu, the Day of Atonement was a reminder that God is holy and should be approached as such in tabernacle worship.[32] John Walvoord says it succinctly, “But [the Day of Atonement] was a temporary provision. It was necessary for Christ to come and die on the cross, ‘to atone for wickedness’ for the sins of Israel as well as the whole world before sin could be ended.”[33] For the Day of Atonement, there is a rich history of forgiving sins, and a story of God’s redeeming grace. For the believer today, Christ is the perfect atoning sacrifice who has propitiated the sins of the whole world (John 3:16; Romans 10:9, 10).

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[1] Mark F. Rooker, The New American Commentary: Leviticus (Nashville: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 2000), 212.

[2] Ibid.

[3] All Scripture quotations taken from The New American Standard: 1995 Update (La Habra, CA: The Lockman Foundation, 1995), unless otherwise noted.

[4] Flavius Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, Book 3, 10, 3, in Josephus: The Complete Works (Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1998): 112.

[5] John Sailhamer, The Pentateuch As Narrative (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1992): 341, 342.

[6] Charles Lee Feinberg, “The Scapegoat of Leviticus Sixteen,” Bibliotheca Sacra 115, no. 460 (October 1958): 322.

[7] Bob Deffinbaugh, “The Day of Atonement” Dr. Braithwaite’s Class Notes on Leviticus (Winston Salem, NC: Piedmont Baptist Graduate School, 2009): 16.10.

[8] John Sailhamer, The Pentateuch As Narrative: 341, 342.

[9] Bob Deffinbaugh, “The Day of Atonement, 16.10.

[10] John Walton, Victor H. Matthews and Mark W. Chavalas, The IVP Bible Background Commentary: Old Testament (Downers Grove, Ill: Inter Varsity Press 2000): 132.

[11] Charles Lee Feinberg, “The Scapegoat of Leviticus Sixteen,” 322.

[12] Mark Rooker, The New American Commentary, 219.

[13]Charles Lee Feinberg, “The Scapegoat of Leviticus Sixteen,” 322.

[14] Mark Rooker, The New American Commentary, 220.

[15] Charles Lee Feinberg, “The Scapegoat of Leviticus Sixteen,” 322.

[16] Warren Wiersbe, Be Holy, (Wheaton, Ill.: Victor Books, 1996).

[17] Richard Herman Seume, “Divine Propitiation: Part 3,” Bibliotheca Sacra 99, no. 396 (October 1942): 470

[18] Ibid.

[19] C.H. Mackintosh, Notes on the Book of Leviticus (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan, 2009): 277-279.

[20] Mark Rooker, The New American Commentary, 220.

[21] Gilbert Braithwaite, Dr. Braithwaite’s Class Notes on Leviticus (Winston Salem, NC: Piedmont Baptist Graduate School, 2009): 16.5-7.

[22] Gary Edward Schnittjer, The Torah Story, (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2006): 331.

[23] John Walton, Victor H. Matthews and Mark W. Chavalas, The IVP Bible Background Commentary, 132.

[24] Ibid.

[25] Ibid.

[26] Warren Wiersbe, Be Holy.

[27] Richard Seume, “Divine Propitiation,” 470.

[28] Bob Deffinbaugh, “The Day of Atonement,” 8.

[29] Ibid.

[30] Earl D. Radmacher, “Salvation-from Eternity to Eternity,” Understanding Christian Theology, ed. Charles Swindoll and Roy B. Zuck (Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 2003): 827.

[31] Gilbert Braithwaite, Dr. Braithwaite’s Class Notes on Leviticus: 23.10, 11.

[32] John Sailhamer, The Pentateuch As Narrative: 341, 342.

[33] John Walvoord, “End Times,” Understanding Christian Theology, ed. Charles Swindoll and Roy Zuck (Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 2003): 1311.

The Deaths of Nadab and Abihu (Leviticus 10)

Introduction

It was a joyous time of celebration after the inauguration of their priestly ministry when the excitement is shattered as Nadab and Abihu disobey God’s command and offer “strange fire.” Because the events surrounding this narrative account are vague, there has been much speculation through the years about exactly what the “strange fire” was, and what sin they had committed in order to illicit such a swift and fatal judgment from the Lord.[1] Understanding the History by looking at the Biblical account of the “strange fire” and the importance of fire in the Old Testament will help to clarify the spiritual significance. The spiritual significance will be clarified by looking at the expectations of holiness, integrity and wisdom in the role of the leadership of Israel.

History

In order to grasp a clearer understanding of the circumstances surrounding the deaths of Nadab and Abihu, three primary points should be studied: the historical account, the “strange fire”, and the emphasis of fire in the Old Testament.

The Historical Account

Nadab was the firstborn son of Aaron who was the High Priest, and Elisheba. He was the brother of Abihu, Eleazar, and Ithamar. The four sons of Aaron, and specifically, Nadab and Abihu are mentioned a few other times in Scripture.[2] Exodus 6:23 records their genealogy when it says, “Aaron married Elisheba, the daughter of Amminadab, the sister of Nahshon, and she bore him Nadab and Abihu, Eleazar and Ithamar.” Nadab and Abihu were among the group who were brought by Moses up the mountain to see God (Exodus 24:1-10). These two men were not outsiders or strangers. They had been anointed by God.[3] Therefore, as the events of chapter 10 unfold, one needs to remember that Nadab and Abihu, and their two younger brothers had all just been ordained as priests (Leviticus 8:30).

Leviticus 10:1, 2 says, “Now Nadab and Abihu, the sons of Aaron, took their respective firepans, and after putting fire in them, placed incense on it and offered strange fire before the Lord, which He had not commanded them. And fire came out from the presence of the Lord and consumed them, and they died before the Lord.” There was much to be celebrated as chapter 9 comes to a close. God had shown His approval of the inauguration of the Aaronic priesthood, and the sacrificial system. Leviticus 9:24 says, “Then fire came out from before the Lord and consumed the burnt offering and the portions of fat on the altar; and when all the people saw it, they shouted and fell on their faces.” Thus, chapter 10 opens with the first full and official day of the priesthood.[4]

This, the first day of the priesthood, was one of the most impressive and solemn days, and it should have been one of the most incredible of Aaron’s life. However, in a moment, tragedy struck when Nadab and Abihu proceeded to bring unauthorized fire before the Lord. No one is sure, and the text is not clear about why the two sons brought the fire before the Lord. Although there have been many suggestions as to what may have led up to this significant event,[5] all anyone knows for sure is that Nadab and Abihu “took their respective firepans, and after putting fire in them, placed incense on it and offered strange fire before the Lord” (10:1).

The “Strange Fire”

The censers with which Nadab and Abihu brought in the incense were most likely long handled pans which could also be used to shovel the hot coals from the sacrifices. They also could serve as portable altars because the incense was actually burned in them. Since access to the main altar (where coals for incense offerings were supposed to be obtained), was difficult given the consuming fire, and since Aaron’s sons decided that incense was needed to shield the people from viewing the glory of the Lord (16:13), coals from another source were used (unauthorized fire). The coals were to be from the altar in the courtyard, as Moses specifically instructed Aaron (16:12). [6]

Discussion of what actual nature of the “strange fire” was, is an attempt to deduce the sin of Nadab and Abihu and could be used in a combination with other theories to help explain this instance. Incense was produced by mixing aromatic spices together. Then, the spices were vaporized by putting them over glowing lumps of coal lying in the censer (which was the “fire”). Leviticus 16:12 says that the coals had to be taken from the altar. Did they get the coals from somewhere else in this instance? Or since daily incense offerings were required (Exodus 30:7, 8), could it have been that Nadab and Abihu had offered the incense at the wrong time of day?[7]

Perhaps, as another theory proposed, Nadab and Abihu offered their respective fires at the wrong time.[8] Moses’ instructions were specifically clear in regard to the order of the sacrifices.[9] According to Kaiser, there is nothing in the text to suggest this would be the case.[10] “The event mentioned here no doubt took place toward the evening of that eighth day. Accordingly, the two men may have performed some ceremony that belonged to another part of the day.”[11] Rooker seems to agree, indicating that the issue at hand is the term “strange fire,” so, the nature of the fire is what the issue is, not the time of day.[12]

Another theory, similar to the previous was that they offered their sacrifices in the wrong place, or that they ventured too far into the sanctuary.[13] Maybe they wanted to offer their incense on the Golden Altar, or to just go behind the veil.[14] Either way, it usurped Aaron’s designated role as high priest and the privilege of going behind the veil once a year.[15] Aaron is in fact warned in 16:1, 2 of not going behind the veil more than once a year.[16] “This admonition might indicate that the nature of Nadab and Abihu’s offense was precisely that they had entered into the Holy of Holies, and thus God took their lives.”[17] There is also an allusion to strange fire and the limiting of entering the Holy of Holies in Exodus 30:9, 10 when the Lord says, “You shall not offer any strange incense on this altar, or burnt offering or meal offering; and you shall not pour out a drink offering on it. Aaron shall make atonement on its horns once a year; he shall make atonement on it with the blood of the sin offering of atonement once a year throughout your generations. It is most holy to the Lord.” So, Aaron and his sons knew ahead a time, that there were specific occasions to go before the Lord, and they could not go any time they pleased. After all, the Holy of Holies was “most holy to the Lord.”

A final supposition as to what caused the “strange fire” and consequently the deaths of Nadab and Abihu would be the connection with and intoxication of strong drink.[18] One must look no further than verse 9, “Do not drink wine or strong drink, neither you nor your sons with you, when you come into the tent of meeting, so that you will not die—it is a perpetual statute throughout your generations.” The alcohol would have impeded their ability to stay alert, cautious and treat the tabernacle with the respect it deserved.[19] There is support and similarities between this instance and the earlier instance of blatant drunkenness of Noah (Genesis 9:20-29).[20] “No wonder, then, that older Jewish commentators thought there might be a connection, and that perhaps Nadab and Abihu had drunk wine to excess. In their view, this circumstance provides the occasion for the warning found here in vv. 8-11.”[21]

Most scholars and commentators agree that some combination of these suggestions contributed to strange fire, and the subsequent deaths of the two men. Kellogg says, “It is perfectly possible, and even likely, that all these elements were combined in their offence. In any case the gravamen of their sin is expressed in these words; they offered ‘fire which the Lord had not commanded them:’ offered it, either in a way not commanded, or at a time not commanded, or in a place not commanded; or, perhaps, in each and all of these ways, offered ‘fire which the Lord had not commanded.’”[22] The narrative of Leviticus from 8:1 forward leads the reader to believe that God expects His priests to obey the Law to the exact.[23] Therefore, whichever scenario is the truth, it still stands to reason that Nadab and Abihu sinned, offered “a strange” or “unauthorized fire,” and it was wrong because it disobeyed the Lord’s command.[24]

Everything these two brothers did seemed to be wrong, and Wiersbe shows that the brothers’ sin was a combination of the reasons for their deaths. They should not have been handling the incense and presenting it to the Lord. Rather, their father, the High Priest should have been doing this (Exodus 30:7-10). They used the wrong tools by using their own censers, as opposed to the censer of the High Priest which was sanctified with anointing oil (40:9). Wiersbe goes on to argue that they were even attempting this at the wrong time. Only the Day of Atonement was the proper time when incense, with special ritual, could be taken behind the veil into the Holy of Holies. There is also no record that they consulted their father or Moses before attempting this, and in addition, they did not use the correct fire. They were also, presumably under the influence of alcohol.[25]

The Emphasis of Fire

At the end of Leviticus 10:1, the phrase “Which He had not commanded them,” is a figure of speech, or meiosis, which is a negative expression stated when the opposite affirmation is emphatically implied (cf. Psalm 78:50; Proverbs 12:3; 17:21). [26] So, even though there is some question as to what code of the law that the two brothers violated, there is no doubt that it was contrary to God’s command.[27] This narrative shows that if one approaches God properly, the holiness imparts life (cf. Isaiah 57:15) and inspires wonder (cf. Exodus 3:3, 4).[28] “But should anything that is profane or unclean enter God’s presence, it is consumed.”[29]

The result was death by fire. Fire is seen several times in the Old Testament. The Lord appears as such in Exodus 24:17; Deuteronomy 5:22; Numbers 11:1; 16:35; 2 Kings 1:10, 12. Fire is also seen as coming down from heaven twelve times in the Old Testament. Six of those ways (Leviticus 9:24; Judges 6:24; 13:20; 1 Chronicles 21:26; 2 Chronicles 7:2; 1 Kings 18:38) were beneficial and six those ways were not (Leviticus 10:1; Numbers 11:1; 16:35; Job 1:16; 2 Kings 1:10, 12). That is the reason the writer of Hebrews says, “for our God is a consuming fire” (12:29).[30]

The fire came that out from the presence of the Lord and devoured the two brothers. It

did so instantly and with certainty and decisiveness. [31] Interestingly, fire in verse 9:24 had been a sign of God’s approval. [32] Here in 10:1, 2, however, it is a distinct sign of God’s disapproval. Most likely the reason the writer of Leviticus put the two events so close together was to show the God’s approval of genuine worship and His justified disapproval of disingenuous worship.[33] The devouring fire happens with them serving in their priestly capacity, complete with being clothed in their tunics. While the brothers are burned, but not to ashes, and killed, their tunics seemingly remain unharmed as verse 5 says, “So [Mishael and Elzaphan] came forward and carried them still in their tunics to the outside of the camp, as Moses had said.”

Spiritual Significance

While there are several spiritual significances that penetrate through this narrative of Nadab and Abihu, two main ones stand out: holiness and integrity.

Holiness

One of the most meaningful areas of spiritual significance in the narrative of Nadab and Abihu has to do with the holiness of God. When the Bible talks about the holiness of God it means, “He is totally and absolutely separated from anything defiling or contrary to His character.” He wants them separated unto Him for His work, not for common use. Leviticus 20:26 highlights this, “Thus you are to be holy to Me, for I the Lord am holy; and I have set you apart from the peoples to be Mine”  (cf. Leviticus 10:10; 11:44; 19:2; Ezekiel 22:26). His holiness is transcendent through all of His attributes, but that same holiness is not exclusive to Him. Rather, He draws people to His holiness and desires that they be holy like Him. Even houses and grain offerings can be considered holy (separated for His use).[34]

The impact of the lesson of God’s holiness comes in Leviticus 10:3, “Then Moses said to Aaron, ‘It is what the Lord spoke, saying, “By those who come near Me I will be treated as holy, And before all the people I will be honored.”’ So Aaron, therefore, kept silent.” Therefore, as can be seen from this verse, Nadab and Abihu failed to appropriately acknowledge and obey God’s holiness. Ignoring of His holiness and commands results in His judgment of sin.[35]

The holiness of God is a theological theme transcendent throughout Scripture. Moses was recorded as saying God being “majestic in holiness” (Exodus 15:11). In Acts 3:14, Peter says, “We have believed and have come to know that You are the Holy One of God.” Revelation 4:8 records the four living creatures acknowledging the holiness of God. “And the four living creatures, each one of them having six wings, are full of eyes around and within; and day and night they do not cease to say, ‘Holy, holy, holy is the Lord God, the Almighty, who was and who is and who is to come.’” The saints in heaven declare “You are Holy” in Revelation 15:4. God reveals in Scripture just how perfect and pure His holiness is. Peter calls all believers to be like Him. “But like the Holy One who called you, be holy yourselves also in all your behavior; because it is written, ‘You shall be holy, for I am holy’” (1 Peter 1:15, 16).[36]

Integrity

The integrity of spiritual leaders is an issue in terms of spiritual significance. For instance, the two younger brothers, Eleazar and Ithamar, are not allowed to carry the bodies of their two older brothers out for burial. The handling of the corpses of close relatives will not necessarily defile a priest (21:1, 2). So, the reason these two brothers are not allowed to bury their own dead is because they are on the verge of starting their own ministry. In fact, they are about to partake of the “most holy” of sacrificial meals from the offerings made during the day. Leviticus 10:12-14, “Then Moses spoke to Aaron, and to his surviving sons, Eleazar and Ithamar, ‘Take the grain offering that is left over from the Lord’s offerings by fire and eat it unleavened beside the altar, for it is most holy. You shall eat it, moreover, in a holy place, because it is your due and your sons due out of the Lord’s offerings by fire; for thus I have been commanded. The breast of the wave offering, however, and the thigh of the offering you may eat in a clean place, you and your sons and your daughters with you; for they have been given as your due and your sons’ due out of the sacrifices of the peace offerings of the sons of Israel.’”[37]

Eleazar and Ithamar were not only restricted from carrying the corpses of their brothers, but they were also restricted in grieving over their brothers. They were told “Do not uncover your heads nor tear your clothes, so that you will not die and that He will not become wrathful against all the congregation. But your kinsmen, the whole house of Israel, shall bewail the burning which the Lord has brought about.” The word for uncover means to “become unkempt” to “bare” or to be “disheveled.” Therefore, none of the signs of mourning and grieving are to be seen between the remaining family members, lest they die. This illustrates, “the way that the sins of the leaders could have a negative impact on the people, even though they have not personally done anything to provoke the negative response.” These men are to continue on in their duties despite  the family emergency, because the Lord’s anointing was upon them (Leviticus 10:7). “This anointing signifies that the call to the service of God takes precedence over every other earthly affection.”[38]

Wisdom

Holiness and integrity can be found in one’s wisdom and discernment. This narrative plays a role in the priests’ being able to make wise choices between holy and profane, clean and unclean. Leviticus 10:10-11says, “and so as to make a distinction between the holy and the profane, and between the unclean and the clean, and so as to teach the sons of Israel all the statutes which the Lord has spoken to them through Moses.” The result will be their ability to teach the nation of Israel the ways of the Lord. So, throughout the next several chapters, Moses will dictate and outline in detail distinctions of clean and unclean, holy and profane.[39]

Conclusion

By looking at a few aspects of the historical circumstances surrounding Nadab and Abihu, the reader can then more fully understand the spiritual importance of their sin and death. An obvious reminder of one’s conduct in service to the Lord comes from Ephesians 5:18, “And do not get drunk with wine, for that is dissipation, but be filled with the Spirit.” However, every follower can gain from the lessons learned through the spiritual emphasis in the deaths of Nadab and Abihu. Thus, every Christian is called to be holy in their individual service to God, and that holiness should be evident to all with whom they come in contact. With this service to Him, comes ministry to others in their lives, and with that ministry comes great responsibility for the believer. Psalm 2:11 encapsulates this idea, “Worship the Lord with reverence And rejoice with trembling.”

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[1] John Hartley, Leviticus: Word Biblical Commentary, vol. 4 (Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1992): 133

[2] Gordon J. Wenham, The Book of Leviticus (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1974): 154.

[3] Warren Wiersbe, Be Holy (Wheaton, Ill.: Victor Books, 1994): 40.

[4] Mark F. Rooker, The New American Commentary: Leviticus (Nashville: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 2000): 156.

[5] Walter Kaiser, “Leviticus,” in The New Interpreter’s Bible: A Commentary in Twelve Volumes, vol. 1 (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1994: 1069.

[6] John Walton, Victor H. Matthews and Mark W. Chavalas, The IVP Bible Background Commentary: Old Testament (Downers Grove, Ill, 2000): 127.

[7] Gordon J. Wenham, The Book of Leviticus, 155.

[8] Walter Kaiser, “Leviticus,” in The New Interpreter’s Bible, 1070.

[9] Ibid.

[10] Ibid.

[11] Ibid.

[12] Mark F. Rooker, The New American Commentary, 157.

[13] Walter Kaiser, “Leviticus,” in The New Interpreter’s Bible, 1070.

[14] Ibid.

[15] Ibid.

[16] Mark F. Rooker, The New American Commentary, 157.

[17] Ibid.

[18] Walter Kaiser, “Leviticus,” in The New Interpreter’s Bible, 1070.

[19] Ibid.

[20] John Sailhamer, The Pentateuch As Narrative (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1992): 330, 331.

[21] Walter Kaiser, “Leviticus,” in The New Interpreter’s Bible, 1071.

[22] S.H. Kellogg, The Book of Leviticus, vol. 1of The Expositor’s Bible, ed. By W. Robertson Nicoll (New York: A. C. Armstrong and Son, 1903):

[23] Gordon J. Wenham, The Book of Leviticus, 155.

[24] John Sailhamer, The Pentateuch As Narrative, 330, 331.

[25] Warren Wiersbe, Be Holy, 39, 40.

[26] Walter Kaiser, “Leviticus,” in The New Interpreter’s Bible, 1070.

[27] Ibid.

[28] John Hartley, Leviticus: Word Biblical Commentary, 133.

[29] Ibid.

[30] Mark F. Rooker, The New American Commentary, 158.

[31] Ibid.

[32] John Sailhamer, The Pentateuch As Narrative, 330, 331.

[33] Ibid.

[34] J. Carl Laney, “God’s Self-Revelation,” Understanding Christian Theology ed. Charles Swindoll and Roy Zuck (Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 2003): 175.

[35] Ibid.

[36] Ibid.

[37] Walter Kaiser, “Leviticus,” in The New Interpreter’s Bible, 1071.

[38] Ibid.

[39] John Sailhamer, The Pentateuch As Narrative, 332.

The Ark of the Covenant

Introduction

God’s holiness requires that He be separated from anything impure and unholy. He chose, in the Old Testament, for the nation of Israel to be set apart for His glory. He desired for them to separate from the sin and defilement of the world, and thus prove that He was different from the other false idols of history.[1] He desired not only a relationship with them, but also to show them that He is the God who saves and intervenes.[2] One of the ways He did so was through the Ark of the Covenant. The Ark was symbolic of His throne on earth, or His footstool providing a link to His people. The Ark has provided many speculators hours of thought provoking wonder as to its current location today. However, one must not be quick to dismiss the Ark as mere legend or gold digger’s dream. The Ark of the Covenant has a rich history, starting with the instructions for its construction which came from the Lord, the Ark’s place in the tabernacle, and the movements it endured as a portable altar and throne of God. It also has a deep spiritual significance, even to Christians today.

History of the Ark of the Covenant

The history of the Ark can be seen through the instructions for the construction of the Ark, its place in the Tabernacle and through its movements in the Old Testament accounts.

Instructions and Construction of the Ark

The proportions of the Ark of the Covenant can be found in Exodus 25:10-22, while the actual construction can be found in 37:1-9. Verses 10 and 11 say the Ark was 3.5 feet wide and 2.5 feet tall, made of acacia wood, overlaid with gold inside and out, and it had a gold border.[3] There were four rings on the Ark through which poles were placed made of acacia wood and encrusted with gold (vv. 12-15).[4] These poles were to never be separated from the Ark as Exodus 25:15 clearly states.[5] The poles were necessary so that anyone carrying the Ark would be prevented from touching it directly, allowing direct access only to the High Priest.[6] The purpose of the Ark was so the Lord could meet with the High Priest (v.22).[7] This was fulfilled in Numbers 7:89, “Now when Moses went into the tent of meeting to speak with Him, he heard the voice speaking to him from above the mercy seat that was on the ark of the testimony, from between the two cherubim, so He spoke to him.”

Inside the Ark was the “testimony” (v. 25:16) that was given to Moses. Deuteronomy 10:2-4 says, “‘I will write on the tablets the words that were on the former tablets which you shattered, and you shall put them in the ark.’ So I made an ark of acacia wood and cut out two tablets of stone like the former ones, and went up on the mountain with the two tablets in my hand. He wrote on the tablets, like the former writing, the Ten Commandments which the Lord had spoken to you on the mountain from the midst of the fire on the day of the assembly; and the Lord gave them to me.” As given by this description, the Ten Commandments were the “testimony” that was to go into the Ark (cf. also, Deuteronomy 31:26).[8] Also, inside the Ark was a pot of manna (Exodus 16:33, 34), and Aaron’s rod (Numbers 17:10).[9] Hebrews 9:4, 5 also records the contents of the Ark.

The cover of the Ark (kapporet) was made of solid gold instead of being encapsulated by gold like the rest of the Ark and was used to seal the Ten Commandments within.[10] The cover measured approximately 3.5 feet by 2 feet.[11] On top of the cover were two cherubim facing each other, their wings extending above and meeting in the middle, and looked down toward the lid.[12] Cherubim are angels of the highest class with amazing powers and incredible beauty.[13] Their purpose is to protect and proclaim God’s glorious presence, sovereignty and holiness.[14] Besides the Ark, they were commissioned to stand guard against sinful man from entering Eden (Genesis 3:24), and they present with God’s glory in Ezekiel’s vision preparatory for judgment (Ezekiel 1).[15] These creatures had an awesome and complex look about them: they had four faces of a man, lion, ox and eagle; with four wings, feet like a calf gleaming as with burnished bronze.[16] Quite simply, the cover was to be considered more than part of the Ark, appearing separately in some cases in the Old Testament.[17]

The arch of the two cherubim wings formed the Mercy Seat atop the Ark. From here is where God spoke to the people of Israel. Von Rad says, “[The Ark] is the throne of deity which is left empty. Or, to put it more exactly, Israel thought of the Ark as the throne of Jahweh. Wherever the Ark is, Jahweh is always fully present.”[18] He goes to describe how when the Ark is raised, the Lord raises up and goes on ahead of Israel, and when the Ark is set down, He sits down upon His throne.[19] Numbers 10:35, 36 says, “Then it came about when the ark set out that Moses said, ‘Rise up, O Lord! And let Your enemies be scattered, And let those who hate You flee before You.’ When it came to rest, he said, ‘Return, O Lord, To the myriad thousands of Israel.’” The symbolic picture represents the divine status of the one seated on the throne, the Ark serving has His chariot propelled by the cherubim.[20]

The cherubim wings were raised over the Ark, and they met in the middle above. This provided a footstool for God, a link between His throne in Heaven and His people on earth. As Price mentions, “If the Ark was a visible (or tangible) footstool for the invisible (or intangible) throne of God when He ‘descended’ to earth, then we can understand the mobile character of the Ark. Wherever God’s presence was to be temporally manifested…the Ark had to be available for the Lord of heaven to ‘rest His feet’ on earth.” In 1 Chronicles 28:2, David says, Then King David rose to his feet and said, “Listen to me, my brethren and my people; I had intended to build a permanent home for the ark of the covenant of the Lord and for the footstool of our God. So I had made preparations to build it” (also cf. 1 Samuel 4:4; 2 Samuel 6:2; 2 Kings 19:15; Psalm 80:1; 99:1; Isaiah 37:16; all of these picture the Lord as enthroned above the cherubim, and Psalm 132:7, 8 pictures the Ark as the footstool of the Lord).[21]

While there has been speculation as to the general overall purpose of the Ark, being container only or throne only, the best view is considered to be both.[22] The Ark contained the Ten Commandments and other artifacts while serving as the throne and footstool of the Lord.[23] The thought behind this is that the throne served as an extension of the container. A historical parallel can be found in Egyptian traditions. Within their own traditions, common practice was to put important documents and relics at the feet of deity.[24] In fact, during Egyptian festivals, the images of gods were carried in a portable box during processions. Paintings describing these show these ‘arks’ with poles and flanked by guardian creatures.[25]

There is not much difference between the narratives describing the instruction versus the construction of the Ark. Essentially, while the main contrast is that the construction passage is several verses shorter than its counterpart, there are no important details not mentioned in the construction of the Ark. The author, Moses, most likely included those details in order to show how the Ark was built, sequencing the process as he deemed appropriate.[26]

The Ark in the Tabernacle

The Ark was placed in the Holy of Holies within the Tent of Meeting. This was a room in which no one could enter except for the High Priest, and even then only one day per year. This Day is the only time which blood is sprinkled upon the Ark. The blood of the bull and the goat was to be sprinkled on the Mercy Seat individually seven times by the High Priest with his finger. This was a unique feature to the Day of Atonement, and “underscores the singular solemnity of this preeminent day.” The cherubim that looked down upon the Mercy Seat saw only sins and rebellions of the Israelites. Therefore, the blood sprinkled on the Mercy Seat symbolically showed that Israel’s sin was atoned for through the death of a substitute. [27]

The act of covering the Holy of Holies in incense is to respect the Lord and His holiness, but also to protect Aaron and his life. The act of sprinkling the bull’s blood on the Mercy Seat allows for the removal of the sins of his household. Then, the act of sprinkling the goat’s blood on the Mercy Seat not only removes the sin of national Israel, but cleanses the most holy place in particular and the tabernacle in general.[28]

Movements of the Ark

The Ark was fitted with rings and poles for transportation purposes. The Ark was to be carried wherever the Israelites went, be it in battle or wandering in the desert. [29] When the Ark was not traveling with the Israelites in battle, defeat would follow, and when the Ark was with them, victory was the result (cf. Numbers 10:33-36; 14:44).[30] When the Ark was stationary, it would be housed in the tent of meeting, which was where God would meet with Moses in order to proclaim His word to the people.[31]

In 1 Samuel 4, Israel gets routed by the Philistines in battle at Aphek and they lost about four thousand troops. They go to battle against the Philistines a second time, take the Ark with them, and still get defeated at Ebenezer (cf. 4:11 and 5:1). One of the theories as to why Israel was defeated was because they were guilty of turning God’s symbol of His presence into an idol by thinking the Ark was a guaranteed victory. The whole idea was, in effect, Israel needing to turn away from the false gods and back to the Lord (7:3).[32]

The Ark becomes problematic for the Philistines in 1 Samuel 5 in three separate ways: first, their idol-god, Dagon was found face down before the Ark (v. 3), the next morning it was found in the same position without head or hands (v. 4). Second, in verse 6, the Lord strikes the Philistines with tumors and finally, the Philistines try moving the Ark from Ashdod to Gath to Ekron, with tumors developing in each place (vv. 6-10). The Philistines finally understand they need to return the Ark back to its place of origin. They are required to return the Ark with a guilt offering of five gold tumors and five gold mice as evaluated by their priests and diviners (6:1-4). The reason for the guilt offering from the Philistines was because there was harm and damage done to the Lord’s holy things, so restitution was required.[33]

Once the Ark is in the process of being returned to Israel, it comes to a temporary rest in Beth-shemesh (field of “Joshua”). There, the people offer sacrifices to the Lord; however, 50,070 people died for inadvertently looking into the Ark. The people of Beth-shemesh then send it on to Kiriath-jearim saying, “The Philistines have brought back the ark of the Lord; come down and take it up to you” (1 Samuel 6:21). There in Kiriath-jearim the Ark stays for twenty years and the house of Israel lamented for the Lord (possibly in order to be restored in their relationship with Him). The Ark is under the supervision Eleazar, Abinadab’s son.[34]

The Ark continued to go unmentioned from 1 Samuel 6. However, in 2 Samuel 6, David, having been crowned king of Israel and won handily over the Philistines, gathers 30,000 men to retrieve the Ark from Kiriath-jearim.[35] David retrieves the Ark with the help of Abindab’s sons, Uzzah (Eleazar) and Ahio, and Uzzah dies while touching the Ark in order to keep it from crashing to the ground (6:7).[36] David leaves the Ark in the house of Obededom for three months and the Lord blesses the household.[37] David then moves it to Jerusalem. Until this point, the Ark had been kept in a tent, and David wanted to build a temple of cedar for it to be housed in. [38]However, the Lord had different plans. Solomon, David’s son would build the temple for the Lord and David’s dynasty would live forever.[39]

Therefore the Ark had moved from a private house, to a tent, and finally, it is set down to rest in the temple Solomon built.[40] 1 Kings 8:6 says, “Then the priests brought the ark of the covenant of the Lord to its place, into the inner sanctuary of the house, to the most holy place, under the wings of the cherubim.” Beyond this, the marrying of Solomon to foreign wives and tolerance of false religions propelled Israel into a motion of decline and eventually split it in two.[41] King Manasseh renovated the temple and put an image of the fertility goddess in place of the Ark (2 Chronicles 33:2-4).[42] Josiah, a godly king, cleansed the temple (2 Chronicles 34:8-33) of which his grandfather desecrated and ordered the Ark returned by the Levites (who were the ones to carry it from place to place) to the Temple.[43] 2 Chronicles 35:3 says, “He also said to the Levites who taught all Israel and who were holy to the Lord, ‘Put the holy ark in the house which Solomon the son of David king of Israel built; it will be a burden on your shoulders no longer. Now serve the Lord your God and His people Israel.’” This is the last point in the Old Testament where the Ark is mentioned.[44] Babylonian captivity ends the monarchy, and the sins of Manasseh are blamed for the loss of the Temple and everything inside.[45]

Spiritual Significance of the Ark of the Covenant

One of the spiritual significances for the Ark comes from its cover, being called at times the “propitiatory,” which connected it with the atonement ritual that took place in front of it (cf. Leviticus 16). The Ark and its cover was the special place where the Lord would speak to His people in person. It was the first item mentioned in the various aspects of worship. This was, in effect, the innermost circle of where the Lord’s presence was: in the midst of His people, Israel. Everything surrounding the Ark, from its lavish decorations to its stunning beauty and the guardians posted on top, gave great and important context to how the worship of God was to be carried out.[46]

Overall, it could be said that the Ark was a type of Christ. The acacia wood that the Ark was made of would be representative of Christ’s incarnate body. The gold overlay represented His perfect divine nature. The tablets within the Ark typified His being a mediator of the Covenant and the Law being written on His heart. Jeremiah 31:33 says “‘But this is the covenant which I will make with the house of Israel after those days,’ declares the Lord, ‘I will put My law within them and on their heart I will write it; and I will be their God, and they shall be My people.’” Also in Psalm 40:8 the Word says, “I delight to do Your will, O my God; Your Law is within my heart.”[47]

An analogy can also be drawn between Christ and the Church on the Mercy Seat and the Cherubim. The Church and the Cherubim “both gaze upon the blood-stained Mercy-Seat. Their faces are Christward. Even in glory the ransomed hosts behold Him as a Lam as it had been slain.” Romans 3:24, 25 says, “being justified as a gift by His grace through the redemption which is in Christ Jesus whom God displayed publicly as a propitiation in His blood through faith. This was to demonstrate His righteousness, because in the forbearance of God, He passed over the sins previously committed.” In other words, Christ is the true “Propitiatory Covering.” “He is set before us as the Righteous One, who has met all the law’s most rigid requirements,- spread Himself along ‘the vast dimensions of its requiring and condemning code.’” His blood atones and covers all sins of the whole world.[48]

Conclusion

The Ark’s history through the divine instructions, the construction, its place in the tabernacle, and its travel throughout give insight into its spiritual significance with the climax pointing towards the Savior of the world: Jesus Christ. The Ark of the Covenant tells the story of God redeeming and communing with His people and His desire for them to live holy relational with Him.[49] However, the Lord’s redemption in Israel and throughout history finally culminated with salvation through Jesus Christ.[50] Jesus provides the link to the Father today for all who will believe in Him. He sacrificially came as the Lamb of God to shed His blood for the lost sinners of the world. “For God did not send the Son into the world to judge the world, but that the world might be saved through Him” (John 3:17).”

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[1] J. Carl Laney, “God’s Self-Revelation,” Understanding Christian Theology, ed. Charles Swindoll and Roy Zuck (Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 2003): 174.

[2] Ibid.

[3] John Sailhamer, The Pentateuch As Narrative (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1992): 301, 302.

[4] John Walton, Victor H. Matthews and Mark W. Chavalas, The IVP Bible Background Commentary: Old Testament (Downers Grove, Ill, 2000): 106, 107.

[5] John Sailhamer, The Pentateuch As Narrative, 301, 302.

[6] John Walton, Victor H. Matthews and Mark W. Chavalas, The IVP Bible Background Commentary, 106, 107.

[7] John Sailhamer, The Pentateuch As Narrative, 301, 302.

[8] Mark F. Rooker, The New American Commentary: Leviticus (Nashville: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 2000), 293.

[9] Walter Elwell, Evangelical Dictionary of Theology, 2^nd ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2001): 96.

[10] John Walton, Victor H. Matthews and Mark W. Chavalas, The IVP Bible Background Commentary, 106, 107.

[11] Walter Elwell, Evangelical Dictionary of Theology, 762.

[12] Ibid., 96.

[13] Paul Enns, The Moody Handbook of Theology (Chicago: Moody Publishers, 2008): 301.

[14] Ibid.

[15] Ibid.

[16] Ibid.

[17] John Durham, Word Biblical Commentary: Exodus, vol. 3 (Waco, TX: Word Books, 1987): 359.

[18] Gerhard Von Rad, Old Testament Theology: The Theology of Israel’s Historical Traditions, vol. 1 (New York: Harper & Row Publsihers, 1962): 236, 237.

[19] Ibid.

[20] Randall Price, In Search of Temple Treasures (Eugene, OR: Harvest House Publishers, 1994): 50.

[21] Ibid.

[22] John Durham, Word Biblical Commentary: Exodus, vol. 3 (Waco, TX: Word Books, 1987): 358.

[23] Ibid.

[24] John Walton, Victor H. Matthews and Mark W. Chavalas, The IVP Bible Background Commentary, 106, 107.

[25] Ibid.

[26] John Durham, Word Biblical Commentary, 484.

[27] Mark F. Rooker, The New American Commentary: Leviticus (Nashville: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 2000), 213, 218.

[28] Paul House, Old Testament Theology (Downers Grove, Ill: InterVarsity Press, 1998): 138.

[29] James King West, Introduction to the Old Testament (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1971): 153.

[30] Samuel Sandmel, The Hebrew Scriptures: An Introduction to their Literature and Religious Ideas (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1963): 29.

[31] James King West, Introduction to the Old Testament (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1971): 153.

[32] Victor Hamilton, Handbook on the Historical Books (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2001): 225.

[33] Ibid., 225, 226. The five tumors and five mice probably indicate and are symbolic of the five Philistine cities, or the entire nation. The gold indicates that it is only the best that could be given from them. Also, the Philistines send this offering so they would get rid of the plague and send it back to its divine source.

[34] Ibid., 227, 313.

[35] Samuel Sandmel, The Hebrew Scriptures, 450.

[36] Victor Hamilton, Handbook on the Historical Books, 313.

[37] Ibid.

[38] Samuel Sandmel, The Hebrew Scriptures, 450.

[39] Ibid.

[40] Victor Hamilton, Handbook on the Historical Books, 397.

[41] Randall Price, In Search of Temple Treasures, 73.

[42] Ibid.

[43] Ibid.

[44] Paul House, Old Testament Theology, 534.

[45] Ibid.

[46] John Durham, Word Biblical Commentary, 360.

[47] John Sailhamer, The Pentateuch As Narrative, 301, 302.

[48] Frank White, Christ in the Tabernacle (London: S.W. Partridge and Co., 1907): 158-160.

[49] J. Carl Laney, “God’s Self-Revelation,” 175.

[50] Ibid.